INTRO
OW: Cressida’s words in Act III, Scene II ironically prophesize her fate by the end of William Shakespeare’s Troilus and Cressida. “If I be false or swerve a hair from truth/ when time is old and hath forgot itself… let them say, to stick the heart of falsehood, / as false as Cressid.”[1] The 1602 play takes place seven years into the Trojan War, the ten-year struggle between the Trojans and Greeks features in Homer’s The Iliad. Troilus, a prince, falls in love with Cressida, a Trojan woman before she is exchanged with a prisoner from the Greek camp. When he asks if Cressida will be true to him, Cressida swears it, stating if not, then her name should be a synonym for falseness. Since the play’s first performance, the character of Cressida has been exactly that: a temptress, a whore, a “dirty ho” as one Goodreads user describes her, Cressida has always been the villain of Shakespeare’s text for “deserting” Troilus in favor of the Greek solider, Diomedes.
OW: This critique of her fails to analyze the societal and cultural obligations, rules, and dangers of being an unmarried woman in either Ancient Troy/Greece or Early Modern and Romantic England. It also neglects how the men of the play, mainly Pandarus, Troilus, and Diomedes, influence her choices and shape her story. This podcast, False as Cressid, will delve into these topics, juxtaposing the late Elizabethan text with Early Modern and Romantic prints of the play’s characters to argue that, in truth, the characterization of a “false Cressid” is the only thing false about her.
AGENDA FOR TODAY’S EPISODE:
OW: Hello and welcome to False as Cressid, where I analyze Early Modern and Romantic era prints of Cressida in Shakespeare’s gendered reception of Troilus and Cressida! My name is Olivia, and I am current senior at the University of Alabama, majoring in English and History, with a minor in Medieval and Early Modern European Studies. For my second episode today, I will be discussing the relationship between Cressida and her uncle, Pandarus and how Pandarus’ control over his niece influences her reputation across time. I will analyze the pair’s relationship in two specific scenes, Act I Scene II and Act III Scene II to highlight emphasis of Cressida as a woman of sexual prowess, Pandarus’ insistence in his role as “pimp” i.e. sexual acts procurer, within Troilus and Cressida’s relationship, and Pandarus prioritizing his friendship with Troilus over his familial bonds with Cressida.
BEAT #1: REVELATION
OW: First, I will analyze two prints of Pandarus and Cressida from Act I Scene II which emphasizes the variation of Cressida’s portrayal in the scene in relation to her sexual prowess as, in one image, she is shy and cowering while, in the other, she is confident and full of swagger. The first image is Troilus and Cressida, Pandarus: O brave Troilus? Look well upon him, niece.[2] This print was made by Henry Rolls in the first half of the nineteenth century. This print depicts Act I Scene II in which Cressida and her uncle, Pandarus, watch the Trojan soldiers return from a day at battle during the Trojan War. Pandarus, encouraged by Troilus to help him woo Cressida, praises Troilus’ attributes. Cressida mock Troilus, much preferring his older brother, Hector. My friend Wylie Walker and I will read the scene twice, I as Pandarus and her as Cressida to highlight the differences in the portrayal of the two prints. First, we will illustrate the first print, in which Cressida is timid.
OW: You are such a woman a man knows not as what ward you lie.
WW: Upon my back, to defend my belly; upon my wit, to defend my wiles; upon my secrecy, to defend mine honesty; my mask, to defend my beauty; and you, to defend all these; and at all these wards I lie, at a thousand watches.
OW: Say one of your watches.
WW: Nay, I’ll watch you for that; and that’s one of the chiefest of them too. If I cannot ward what I would not have it, I can watch you for telling how I took the blow, unless it swell past hiding, and then it’s past watching.
OW: You are such another!
CUT PART WITH TROILUS’ BOY
Exit Pandarus
WW: Words, vows, gifts, tears, and love’s full sacrifice He offers in another’s enterprise; But more in Troilus thousandfold I see Than in the glass of Pandar’s praise may be. Yet hold I off. Women are angels, wooing; Things won are done, joy’s soul lies in the doing. That she beloved knows nought that knows not this: Men price the thing ungained more than it is That she was never yet, that ever knew Love got so sweet as when desire did sue. Therefore this maxim out of love I teach: Achievement is command; ungained, beseech. Then, though my heart’s content from love doth bear, Nothing of that shall from mine eyes appear.[3]
OW: So, the emphasis here is meant to correlate to Rolls’ print. In the image, both uncle and niece wear stern expressions. Pandarus looks to be seriously imploring Cressida to notice Troilus, as the soldiers walk back into Ilium in the background. Cressida shyly looks where her uncle is pointing with a neutral expression on her face. She clutches her shawl in her arms with her back turned to her uncle, looking over her shoulder, which further emphasizes her anxiety at his plea.
OW: Taking this into context with the lines Wylie and I read, one can read the scene as one of hesitance. I think it important to note lines 255-256. When Pandarus asks Cressida what “ward” (defensive posture) she lies upon, she states “upon my secrecy, to defend mine honesty.” The Pelican Shakespeare, one of the versions of the play I’m using for this assignment, notates “honesty” as “chastity.” This is what I think is being portrayed in Rolls’ print. Cressida pays respectful attention to her uncle, looking him in the eyes as he is speaking but maintains her modest posture. She’s turned away from him and his dire expression as if to shield herself, to protect her chastity.
OW: It is important to note that, as evidenced in Act I Scene I, Pandarus has been implored by Troilus for him to convince Cressida to enter into a sexual relationship with him as an unmarried woman. Troilus makes no mention of wedding Cressida but is more concerned with her physical beauty. When he first tells Pandarus of his adoration of her, he notes “her eyes, her hair, her cheek, her gait, her voice.”[4] He makes no mention of any intellectual or emotional qualities she has. He wants a sexual relationship with her. Therefore, as her uncle, Pandarus believes himself to be “pimping” Cressida out to him i.e. selling Cressida’s sexual services to Troilus. Could this be, then, what Cressida is shielding herself from? She mentions her desire to keep her chastity and what Pandarus urges her to do goes directly against that. Yet, if Pandarus serves as a procurer for Cressida in this moment against her wishes, this is not the work of a “pimp” but a sex trafficker. This slants Cressida’s mention of protecting her chastity in a very different light and further evidence against her supposed villainy. Rather, Cressida, then, is speaking out of fear for her honor and safety as an unmarried woman, as well as the sheer fact that she is being pressured into a sexual union that she may not consent to. In Rolls’ print, Cressida looks to be cautious and afraid, attempting to defend herself from premarital sex.
OW: Troilus & Cressida, act 1, sc. 2, a street, Cressida, Pandarus, Troilus tells a different story. This print was made by Charles Warren in 1800. It, again, depicts Act I Scene II. Rather than the shy, timid portrayal of Cressida seen in Rolls’ print, Warren’s shows a confident, bold version. Again, Wylie and I will read the lines, but will try to draw attention to this reading of the print and scene.
OW: You are such a woman a man knows not as what ward you lie.
WW: Upon my back, to defend my belly; upon my wit, to defend my wiles; upon my secrecy, to defend mine honesty; my mask, to defend my beauty; and you, to defend all these; and at all these wards I lie, at a thousand watches.
OW: Say one of your watches.
WW: Nay, I’ll watch you for that; and that’s one of the chiefest of them too. If I cannot ward what I would not have it, I can watch you for telling how I took the blow, unless it swell past hiding, and then it’s past watching.
OW: You are such another!
CUT PART WITH TROILUS’ BOY
Exit Pandarus
WW: Words, vows, gifts, tears, and love’s full sacrifice He offers in another’s enterprise; But more in Troilus thousandfold I see Than in the glass of Pandar’s praise may be. Yet hold I off. Women are angels, wooing; Things won are done, joy’s soul lies in the doing. That she beloved knows nought that knows not this: Men price the thing ungained more than it is; That she was never yet, that ever knew Love got so sweet as when desire did sue. Therefore this maxim out of love I teach: Achievement is command; ungained, beseech. Then, though my heart’s content from love doth bear, Nothing of that shall from mine eyes appear.[5]
OW: In Warren’s print, as Troilus rides by on a horse in the background, Pandarus looks to Cressida with concern on his face. Cressida props herself up against a pillar with a small look of ire on her face, gesticulating boldly to Troilus. She is lazily leaning against the pillar, barely listening to her uncle before admonishing his choice of a lover for her. This is not a meek woman but a proud one, mocking a prince of Troy. Cressida comes across in this print as a woman of experience. She understands what Pandarus is urging her towards as an unmarried woman.
OW: Looking back to the text, Cressida’s words now have a different meaning. Rather than the naïve maiden looking to protect her chastity (and potential sex trafficking), she appears to speak with the foresight neither Pandarus or Troilus has. She states, “That she beloved knows nought that knows not this: Men price the thing ungained more than it is.”[6] In this reading of the scene, Cressida knows that Troilus is valuing her higher than she is. It is as if she understands that, in the future, she will betray him. While it is impossible for Cressida to understand the future circumstances that will lead her to Diomedes (and the external pressures to be with him), Warren’s prints suggest that, regardless of any situations that arise, Cressida will be disloyal to Troilus and her unfaithfulness is certain from the moment Pandarus even suggests him as a lover for her.
OW: These two prints highlight a disparity between portrayals of Cressida. In images such as Rolls’ print, she is naïve and innocent. In those like Warren’s, she is confident and sly. As stated in Episode #1, there is a centuries-long debate over the character of Cressida. The discrepancy in representation is quite interesting. As seen in Episode #1, Cressida’s alleged deceitfulness was constantly emphasized in Early Modern and Romantic era prints. While this is the case for Warren’s print, it is not for Rolls’. So, while most of the prints I’ve discussed so far are scornful of Cressida, this one is not. Therefore, again, there is a dichotomy of representations of her. Blushing maiden or femme fatale? The two sides of her roar against one another.
BEAT #2- INTERACTION
OW: Prints of Act III Scene II of Troilus and Cressida further explore Cressida and Pandarus’ relationship when it comes to Troilus and toy with the idea of whether he prioritizes his relationship with his niece or his friend. As discussed in Episode #1, Act III Scene II captures the moment Troilus and Cressida finally meet for the first time, with Pandarus along to act as a liaison. He presents his niece as a sexual object to Troilus, lifting her veil so he can view her face and body. This is one of the most famous scenes within Shakespeare’s play and, therefore, there are a multitude of iterations for it. These prints vary in their representations of each of the three characters but specifically in their portrayals of Pandarus. The first two images I want to note are Triolus [sic] and Cressida: Come draw this curtain… act 3, sc. 2. and Troile et Cresside Allons, levez ce voile, et laiffez voir votre portrait, act III, scen. IX. Troile et Cresside Allons, levez ce voile, et laiffez voir votre portrait, act III, scen. IX was made by Jean Michael Moreau in 1785.[7] Triolus [sic] and Cressida: Come draw this curtain… act 3, sc. 2 was made by Noel Le Mire in 1800.[8]
OW: Both of these prints show a wary Pandarus, one who is more protective of his niece, Cressida. In Moreau’s print, Pandarus holds both Cressida’s veil and Troilus’ arm. On his face, he wears an imploring expression, as if asking Troilus to be careful with his niece. His hold on both of them is slight but in grasping both of them, it almost looks as if he is presenting each of them to the other. It is a more equal exchange. In Le Mire’s print, the same is said as the print is a reproduction of Moreau’s print fifteen years after its creation. The French image and its reproduction, as stated, show no power imbalance in the meeting but the lovers being presented to each other. Pandarus’ mouth is agape, speaking the famous line, “Come, draw this curtain and let’s see your picture.”[9] Though, in the image, despite not wearing a veil, it looks almost as if Troilus is being asked to show “his picture” as well. Cressida’s eyes are not downcast but looking straight at her potential lover as he looks back at her. They are each assessing the other.
OW: This image and reproduction print highlight a more, almost paternalistic idea of Pandarus. While it is important to note that he is still selling out his niece to a Trojan prince for a sexual relationship outside of marriage, she looks to have more of an equal part in their meeting. Pandarus also looks sincere in his presentment, as if this relationship will not only satisfy his friend Troilus but Cressida as well. In this portrayal of Pandarus, Cressida is being led by a older relative, whom she trusts, into a relationship that he thinks will benefit her. Her path is guided by his instruction as she takes the advice of her uncle who lovingly removes her veil while grasping the arm of her future lover, gently guiding them together.
OW: Such seeming kindness is not evident in other prints of this scene. Two other images I want to look at are Troilus & Cressida, act 3, sc. 2. and Troilus and Cressida, act 3, scene 2. Troilus & Cressida, act 3, sc. 2 was made by William Platt in 1800.[10] Troilus and Cressida, act 3, scene 2 was made by Henry Robinson in the early nineteenth century.[11] Both of these prints show a sterner, harsher Pandarus. In Platt’s image, Pandarus looks severely at Troilus while grasping Cressida’s arm and pointing sharply at her. Cressida does not wear a veil at all. Troilus gazes at Cressida with no discernable expression on his face while Cressida appears to be looking at her uncle, mouth agape. Her face does not emit joy or excitement but fear and, perhaps, pain, as if Pandarus is squeezing her arm too tightly.
OW: In Robinson’s print, Pandarus lifts Cressida’s veil with both arms, his eyes solely focused on her with a sneer on his face. Troilus stands with his feet apart and arms out, like he is bracing himself for her appearance. Cressida appears meek and timid, eyes downcast as she is presented to her future lover. These two images drastically differ from the two previous prints discussed. Rather than the familial concern displayed before, Pandarus looks in these two prints cruel and sinister in turn. I think looking at the scene from Shakespeare’s text can provide reasoning for Pandarus’ expression in Platt’s print. After the famous “come draw this curtain” line, Pandarus continues to speak to his niece, saying, “Alas the day, how loath you are to offend daylight!”[12] He is scolding Cressida for her hesitance. Perhaps his ire results in the pained expression on Cressida’s face and for his severe expression. He desperately wants the match to happen and his niece is not cooperating as quickly as he’d like. In the second print, Pandarus’ sneer evidences this desire for Troilus and Cressida’s coupling, as if he gets some sort of internal pleasure from watching the match happen (aside from familial and friendly happiness for the pair).
OW: Scholar Daniel Gil discusses one potential cause for this, stating, “As an orthodox homosocialist, Pandarus thinks of women he is related to as chips to be traded to other men, and he views setting up a liaison between the lovers as a means of securing a liaison with Troilus himself.[13] In Gil’s reading of the text, Pandarus desires to have a friendship with Troilus as such would be advantageous for him. A way to strengthen their current relationship would be to sate Troilus’ own desire to enter a sexual relationship with his niece, Cressida. Pandarus has something to gain and will do whatever he wants to get it. Therefore, together these images emphasize the presence of Pandarus in Troilus and Cressida’s relationship. Both images show, as Gil puts it, that Pandarus places some sort of personal stake within the relationship which, in turn, comes across in his facial expressions. He is serious because of the societal gains for himself. He takes pleasure in presenting Cressida because he understands the benefits he can reap from the relationship and so he is insistent upon it, organizing their pair’s meetings himself.
BEAT #3: REVELATION
OW: Additionally, in prints of Act III Scene II, Pandarus hides behind Troilus and Cressida, further emphasizing his desperate need for the match to go according to his plan. In the text, after Pandarus lifts Cressida’s veil, her and Troilus begin to converse. It is this moment that I believe is depicted in the two prints, Troilus and Cressida [act 3, sc. 2] and Troilus & Cressida, Tro.: True swains in love shall in the world to come approve their truths by Troilus, act 3, sc. 2. The first printwas made in the early eighteenth century by Valentine Bromley and printed by James Armytage.[14] Troilus & Cressida, Tro.: True swains in love shall in the world to come approve their truths by Troilus, act 3, sc. 2 was created by John Thurston and printed by Cosmo Armstrong in 1805.[15]
OW: In Armytage’s print, Troilus and Cressida are the focal point. They stand arm in arm, holding each other close and gazing at one another. In the back right stands Pandarus with his arms held out and a pleased smile on his face. His posture and facial expressions show the satisfaction of a job well done. He has brought the two together and, as he looks on, seems to be satisfied with how the event is turning out so far. He hides in the background watching the couple’s conversation and, as the text states, at one point, kiss. In Armstrong’s image, again, Troilus and Cressida are the focal point. Troilus puts an arm around Cressida as he makes a proclamation of love. Cressida gazes at him intently, hanging onto to every word. Pandarus is in the background, eyes glued to the scene of the couple before him. There is a bit of a smirk on his face, reinstating the idea of his excitement of everything going according to plan.
OW: Scholars Michael Bielmeier and James O’Rourke both discuss Pandarus and this scene in detail. Bielmeier writes, “That something is amiss in the aubade exchange between Troilus and Cressida, even apart from the presence of the lecherous and diseased Pandarus, becomes readily apparent.”[16] He goes on to analyze the similarities between Adam and Eve, and Troilus and Cressida. Bielmeier states that Cressida is “forbidden fruit” to Troilus and, therefore, like Adam, does not understand the sin of committing such an act until he has. While there is somewhat of a case to be made (though I do not like the notion in the context of Troilus and Cressida, as it assumes Cressida’s villainy), I am more interested in this description of Pandarus. He called “lecherous” and “diseased.” It brings up the mental image of a sleazy, old man who, aside from the social gains pointed out by Gil, some sort of sexual pleasure of his own.
OW: O’Rourke delves into this idea, describing Pandarus’ involvement in the relationship “voyeuristic” and writing, “By depicting Pandarus, and not Cressida, as both diseased and the source of disease, Shakespeare places the blame for the corruption of sexuality not on the woman but on the governing term of a patriarchal societal order- the patriarch.”[17] As O’Rourke asserts, aside from also describing him as diseased, Pandarus is the serving patriarch of Cressida’s family. Her father, Calchas, went to the Greek camp as soon as he had visions of Troy’s ruin and in his absence, it is up to Pandarus to be the family’s voice of authority and reason. He, therefore, has an immense amount of say in Cressida’s actions and can put pressure on her. In the two prints, it can be inferred that Cressida is constantly aware of her uncle’s presence and so she goes forth with the relationship with Troilus to please him as she believes that Pandarus is operating with her best interest in mind, not his. Additionally, O’Rourke notes on the constant idea throughout scholarship of Pandarus seen as a voyeur within Troilus and Cressida’s relationship. Cressida believes that her uncle has her best interest at heart but, perhaps, Pandarus obtains some sort of sexual pleasure from the union of two young people who both think of him highly. This idea, then, paints Pandarus more as a malicious puppet master who bends others to his will simply for his own enjoyment. The immense weight Cressida feels to perform to her uncle’s whims and desires can be understood in this context. Cressida, then, is not some cunning seductress but a young unmarried woman following the guidance of a trusted family member.
CONCLUSION:
OW: So, to summarize, I have analyzed the relationship between Cressida and Pandarus in three different aspects. First, I analyzed two prints of Act I Scene II to note the difference in Cressida’s portrayal, the difference in portraying her sexual prowess (or lack of one) working to either politely debate or cruelly mock her uncle. Second, I studied prints from Act III Scene II to note Pandarus’ actions in lifting Cressida’s veil and Troilus and Cressida’s responses to look at Pandarus’ intentions for the match. Lastly, I looked at additional prints of the scene, specifically with Pandarus in the background, to note, alongside more reasons for his insistence on the relationship, the amount of influence he has on Cressida as the patriarch of her family. All highlight how much pressure is put on Cressida due to her uncle’s desires.
OUTRO:
OW: Thanks. This episode would not be what it is without the help of several people. Thanks again to my project advisors, Dr. Tavares and Dr. Jones. Thank you to my dear friend, Wylie Walker, for acting out bits of Act I Scene II with me. Thank you, again, to the Folger Shakespeare Library for their collection of Early Modern and Romantic era prints from Troilus and Cressida. Next episode, I will look closely at the relationship between Cressida and Troilus (excluding Pandarus) to analyze the briefness of their sexual relationship and the pressure Troilus puts on Cressida.
[1] Shakespeare, William, Troilus and Cressida, Penguin Random House, 2017, lines 179-190.
[2] Henry Rolls, Troilus and Cressida, Pandarus: O brave Troilus? Look well upon him, niece, 1800-1850, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img27160
[3] William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Penguin Random House, 2017, lines 241-288.
[4] William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Penguin Random House, 2017, line 54.
[5] William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Penguin Random House, 2017, lines 241-288.
[6] William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Penguin Random House, 2017, lines 281-282.
[7] Troile et Cresside Allons, levez ce voile, et laiffez voir votre portrait, act III, scen. IX, Jean Michael Moreau, 1785, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img34707.
[8] Triolus [sic] and Cressida: Come draw this curtain… act 3, sc. 2, Noel Le Mire, 1800, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img27164.
[9] William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Pelican Shakespeare, 2017, lines 44-45.
[10] William Platt, Troilus & Cressida, act 3, sc. 2., 1800, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img27166.
[11] Henry Robinson, Troilus and Cressida, act 3, scene 2, 1800-1871, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img27165.
[12] William Shakespeare, Troilus and Cressida, Pelican Shakespeare, 2017, lines 45-46.
[13] Daniel Gil, “At the Limits of the Social World: Fear and Pride in “Troilus and Cressida,” Shakespeare Quarterly 52, no. 3, 2001, pp. 336-359, 345. At the Limits of the Social World: Fear and Pride in “Troilus and Cressida” on JSTOR.
[14] James Armytage, Troilus and Cressida [act 3, sc. 2, 1820-1871, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img28271.
[15] Cosmo Armstrong, Troilus & Cressida, Tro.: True swains in love shall in the world to come approve their truths by Troilus, act 3, sc. 2, 1805, Folger Shakespeare Library, Washington D.C. https://digitalcollections.folger.edu/img27167.
[16] Michael Bielmeier, “Ethics and Anxiety in Shakespeare’s “Troilus and Cressida,” Christianity and Literature 50, no. 2, 2001, pp. 225-245 (233), Ethics and Anxiety in Shakespeare’s “Troilus and Cressida” on JSTOR.
[17] James O’Rourke, “Rule in Unity” and Otherwise: Love and Sex in “Troilus and Cressida,” Shakespeare Quarterly 43, no. 2, 1992, 139-158 (140), “Rule in Unity” and Otherwise: Love and Sex in “Troilus and Cressida” on JSTOR.
False as Cressid 